Objective The Stone Forest Courtyard in The Lingering Garden is a classic example of the “separate construction” type of study garden space in private gardens of Jiangnan literati during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Its design not only follows traditional principles of garden spatial layout but also fully embodies the spatial artistic value of the traditional Chinese cultural concept of “the world in a pot” (壶中天地). Therefore, by examining the historical context, this study delves into the spatial construction logic of the Stone Forest Courtyard, revealing the cultural motivations behind its design. This approach enriches the “scenic surface, literary heart” (景面文心) discourse in garden history and offers valuable traditional experience for contemporary garden design practice, contributing to the cultural inheritance and innovation of modern garden spaces.

Methods  The research adopts a multi-layered methodological framework combining historical documentation, spatial analysis, and cultural interpretation. First, through the comprehensive collection, collation, and critical examination of historical records, inscriptions, and related literature, the study clarifies key aspects such as the construction period of the Stone Forest Courtyard, the identities and intentions of its principal creators, and the broader socio-cultural background in which it was created. This step establishes a solid historical foundation and enables the reconstruction of the courtyard’s spatial evolution over time. Second, a plan-based deductive approach is employed, using existing layout drawings and site analysis to examine spatial organization, functional zoning, and circulation patterns. This allows for a systematic exploration of the relationship between design intention and spatial usage. Furthermore, axonometric projections and three-dimensional diagrams are utilized to visualize the spatial structure, revealing the interdependence, layering, and visual connectivity of architectural and landscape elements. In addition, a historical-logical analytical method is applied to interpret the cultural motivations underlying the design, examining how the spatial configuration interacts with contemporary intellectual trends, aesthetic ideals, and literati practices. Through this integrative approach, the study uncovers the deeper cultural logic embedded in the physical form of the garden space.

Results  The study identifies the “stone-centered” construction motivation and the “separate construction” site selection of the Stone Forest Courtyard, highlighting its spatial aesthetic goals around the “stone forest landscape.” Two main spatial composition models are generated: one within the garden, involving “building-corridor-partitioned courtyard,” and the other outside, featuring “building-half room-retained gap-corridor-partitioned courtyard.” These two models organize the space from different perspectives, ensuring that the landscape within the courtyard is both continuous and varied. The interplay and transition between these two models create a unique spatial experience. Furthermore, four types of spatial viewing—“separated courtyard,” “wandering corridor,” “touching” and “meditation”-further enrich the layers of spatial experience. The spatial effect of the “Mystical Realm” in the Stone Forest Courtyard is derived from the current changes in the tour route of the Lingering Garden and the spatial pattern of the “Half Room-retained gap-Partitioned Courtyard” combination. Through visual nesting and juxtaposition, it cleverly hides spatial orientation, making it difficult for visitors to grasp directions. This complexity of spatial layers and the guidance of visual paths create a maze-like effect, reinforcing the garden’s layered sense and producing a unique illusion of reality and abstraction in the landscape and providing the Stone Forest Courtyard with a distinctive spatial aesthetic experience.

Conclusion Finally, the study concludes by summarizing the construction logic and cultural motivations of the Stone Forest Courtyard and exploring its implications for contemporary design practice. The construction logic and cultural motivations behind it are key to understanding the complexity of traditional Chinese garden spaces. The Stone Forest Courtyard, built by Liu Shu in his later years as a stone-viewing study garden, reflects his profound expression of “literary heart.” With “stone” as a spiritual symbol, the core creative theme became “how to view the stone,” which led to the spatial complexity of the “illusion of the world in a pot.” The garden design, through its intricate layout, conceals spatial orientation, creating a maze-like experience, and enriches spatial perception and experience through stones placed at different scales.. The design philosophy aligns with the concept of study spaces found in Yuan Ye (the classic garden manual), reflecting the ideal cultural and creative environment sought by literati. As such, the Stone Forest Courtyard not only deepens scholarly understanding of spatial complexity in traditional gardens but also provides a valuable cultural and theoretical foundation for contemporary design practice. In addressing the relative neglect of cultural perception and embodied experience in modern landscape design, this study underscores the enduring relevance of traditional garden wisdom in shaping meaningful and immersive spatial environments today.